Nickel Development Institute
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NUCLEAR SERVICE WATER PIPING (1995)
Catalog #15001; PDF File size: 1.9mb
A Nickel Development Institute Case Study. The Salem Nuclear Generating Station is located in the state of New Jersey on the east coast of the United States of America. It has two 1,100 MW operating units which went into service in 1977 and 1981. Despite regular inspection and maintenance of its service water system, both units began experiencing numerous problems with corrosion of the in-plant service water piping. This lead the utility to thoroughly evaluate the problem and possible replacement materials and to conduct an extensive testing program. The results obtained from both the testing program and the plants's service experience with the various replacement materials are described in this case study.
HEAT TINTS ON STAINLESS STEELS CAN CAUSE CORROSION PROBLEMS
Catalog #14050; PDF File Size: 0.8MB
By A.H. Tuthill and R.E. Avery, reprinted from Materials Performance February 1999.
The dark heat tint formed alongside welds during welding of stainless steel (SS) the heat-affected zone (HAZ) is a thicker chromium oxide scale with a mixture of iron, nickel, and other oxides. This thin layer is lower in chromium, the primary constituent that gives SS its good corrosion resistance. Corrosion that would not occur elsewhere can initiate in the HAZ unless the heat tint scale and the thin chromium-depleted layer just beneath are removed. Removal by rotating fiber brush, pickling, or electropolishing readily restores this area to base-metal resistance.
STAINLESS STEEL PIPING
Catalog #14044; HTML File size: 53.0kb
By A.H. Tuthill, reprinted from Journal American Water Works Association, Volume 86, Number 7, July 1994.
Stainless steel has been used extensively for potable water since the mid-1960s in desalination plants for handling product water; in potable water treatment plants for gravity filtration and piping; in Tokyo, Japan, for small-diameter household connection piping; and in New York City for large-diameter risers and other piping. The most familiar use of stainless steel is for drinking fountains. Background information and general data are given on Types 304 (UNS S30400) and 316 (S31600) stainless steel, and their current use in potable water applications is reported. The behavior of stainless steel used with raw, chlorinated, and finished water as well as of piping buried in soil is reviewed. Postfabrication cleanup and maintenance of exterior appearance and cleanliness are also reviewed. Guidelines for procurement and successful use are suggested.
STEELED AGAINST THE ELEMENTS STAINLESS STEEL DOORS CAN STAND UP TO FIRE AND CORROSIVE ENVIRONMENTS
Catalog #14043; PDF File size: 4.2mb
By Catherine M. Houska, reprinted from Doors and Hardware, August 1997.
No matter what the buidling type or application, a door is expected to remain functional, secure and attractive for the life of the building. Fire, blast and sound resistance; ease of cleaning; and corrosion resistance are all practical reasons for selecting stainless steel doors, but they can also have decorative raised design and elaborate surface finishes which provide limitless creative design possibilities.
LONG LIFE AMBITION
Catalog #14041; PDF File Size: 0.8MB
By James Borland, reprinted from Nickel, Vol.12 (1), 1996.
Guildhall, the building that has been the centre of government for London since the 13th century, is gaining a 50-million pound sterling addition that uses stainless steel reinforcing to ensure its long life.
FABRICATION TECHNIQUES FOR SUCCESSFUL ORBITAL TUBE WELDING
Catalog #14040; PDF File size: 4.5mb
By Barbara K. Henon, reprinted from Tube and Pipe Quarterly, Vol. 7 (1&2), 1997.
The past decade has seen a revolution in piping system fabrication technology for many industries. The technology has been driven by the semiconductor industry's need to deliver process gases to the point-of-use at purity levels unheard of 10 years ago. This level of technical sophistication requires a piping system with an extremely smooth interior surface finish to prevent adherence of particulates, moisture, or other impurities to the tubing walls. The increasing demand for high-quality joining of piping systems in these critical industries in the early 1980s resulted in an increased use of portable orbital welding systems that operate on single-phase electrical power.
STAINLESS STEELS FOR CHEMICAL PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Catalog #14038; PDF File size: not available
By G. Kobrin et al., reprinted from Stainless Steel World, Volume 10, Issue 4, May 1998.
Chemical process equipment, piping systems and instrumentation all make extensive use of austenitic stainless steel materials of construction. Most commonly used are wrought AISI types 304L and 316L and the cast version of 316 known as CF-8M. A vast body of knowledge is available on the properties and applicability of these alloys. This article provides practical guidance on ten issues most often raised by designers, plant engineers and maintenance people on stainless steels in process equipment applications. These issues are often the key to successful operation of plant equipment.
WELDING STAINLESS AND 9% NICKEL STEEL CRYOGENIC VESSELS
Catalog #14037; PDF File size: 2.1mb
By Richard E. Avery and David Parsons, reprinted from Welding Journal, November, 1995.
It is well known that ferritic steels, including the low-alloy steels, lose toughness and ductility at low temperatures. The ductile-brittle transition temperature, i.e., a temperature below which a metal becomes brittle, is affected by steel-making practices. Alloys with increasing nickel content substantially increase low-temperature toughness. Finally, improved test methods and equipment for measuring toughness can improve yields by alleviating unnecessary rejects.
WELDING DUPLEX AND SUPER-DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS
Catalog #14036; PDF File size: 4.3mb
By L. van Nassau, H. Meelker and J. Hilkes, reprinted from Welding in the World, Vol. 31, (5), 1993.
Industrial conditions, especially involving Cl-containing aqueous fluids, may require materials with improved corrosion and/or strength properties compared to a standard austenitic stainless steel grade (AISI 316L or X2 CrNiMo 1812). To meet this need a duplex stainless steel grade with approximately 18.5% Cr, 5% Ni, 2.7% Mo and 0.1% N was introduced in the 1970s. This grade is no longer promoted by the manufacturers but new low carbon stainless steel grades with 22-27% Cr, 4-8% Ni, 0.1-0.3% N, with or without Mo (1.5-4%), and in some cases with additional elements, have been developed. They form the current families of duplex and super-duplex stainless steels, with the austenite-ferrite structure in common. Early applications, and even today's projects, have frequently been associated with such problems as cracking or preferential corrosion behaviour. Consequently, welding of duplex and super-duplex stainless steel has been subject to fundamental and applied research.
THE INFLUENCE OF RISK ANALYSIS ON THE ECONOMICS OF CARBON STEEL AND CRA CLAD FLOWLINES
Catalog #14035; PDF File size: 0.8mb
By B.D. Craig and R.S. Thompson. Presented at the 1995 Offshore Technology Conference, Paper OTC 7788, Houston, TX, May 1-4, 1995.
Recently a method was presented to assist in making the decision to install corrosion resistant alloy (CRA) pipelines or inhibited carbon steel. This method incorporated risk into the decision process. Previous economic analyses comparing solid and clad CRA pipelines to those constructed from inhibited carbon steel have only taken into account the costs for each option without considering the probability or cost of failure. This paper extends the earlier work by examining the effects of varying the assumed probability of failure of the clad pipeline and introducing utility effects.
STAINLESS STEEL REINFORCING AS CORROSION PROTECTION
Catalog #14034; PDF File size: 2.1mb
By D.B. McDonald, M.R. Sherman, D.W. Pfeifer, and Y.P. Virmani, reprinted from Concrete International, May, 1995.
Designers are focusing more attention on the construction of corrosion-resistant reinforced concrete structures. One potential method is to use highly corrosion-resistant reinforcement. Solid stainless steel and stainless steel clad reinforcing bars have been used in Europe for many years. This paper discusses research findings from corrosion studies of these materials, and some recent results from laboratory and field investigations have been reviewed. Costs associated with the use of such bars are also discussed.
SYSTEMIC NICKEL: THE CONTRIBUTION MADE BY STAINLESS STEEL COOKING UTENSILS
Catalog #14033; PDF File size: 1.3mb
By G.N. Flint and S. Packirisamy, reprinted from Contact Dermatitis, Vol. 32 (4), 1995.
An extensive programme of cooking operations, using household recipes, has shown that, apart from aberrant value associated with new pans on first use, the contribution made by 19 Cr/9 Ni stainless steel cooking utensils to nickel in the diet is negligible. The amount of nickel (0 to 8 µg) derived from the utensils in standard portions of various "aggressive" foodstuffs tested was less than that to be found occurring in 1 square of a bitter-sweet chocolate bar.
RECYCLING A RAILCAR CLASSIC
Catalog #14032; PDF File size: 3.5mb
By James Borland, reprinted from Nickel, Vol. 10 (4), 1995.
There may be no better testimonial to the quality and longevity of stainless steel railcars than this award-winning modernization program of Canada's transcontinental passenger fleet. Via Rail, Canada's publicly owned passenger rail company, decided to refurbish its 40-year-old transcontinental fleet of stainless steel railcars and got more than it bargained for -- more efficiency, more cost savings and more customer satisfaction.
LAMBTON'S ALLOY LINING
Catalog #14028; PDF File size: not available
By James Borland, reprinted from Nickel, Vol. 9 (4), 1994.
When Canada's largest electric utility began rehabilitating its Lambton coal-fired generating plant at Courtright, Ont., it decided to install flue-gas scrubbers to comply with environmental regulations and to line them with rubber to prevent corrosion. It was later re-evaluated and wallpapered with N10276.
CORROSION BEHAVIOUR OF STAINLESS STEEL, NICKEL BASE ALLOY AND TITANIUM WELDMENTS IN CHLORINATION AND CHLORINE DIOXIDE BLEACHING
Catalog #14026; PDF File size: 4.3mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill, Richard E. Avery and Andrew Garner. Reprinted from Proceedings of the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, TAPPI, 7th International Symposium on Corrosion in the Pulp and Paper lndustry, Orlando, FL, 1992.
An overview of a decade long series of programs which exposed welded coupon and full diameter pipe in chlorination and chlorine dioxide bleaching equipment. Findings have guided procedures for the fabrication and post fabrication cleanup of over 75 6%-Mo stainless steel washers. Findings are also applicable to 6% Mo, nickel base alloy, clad nickel base alloy, titanium and plastic-lined piping for bleach plants. Guidelines for procurement and fabrication of piping materials are included. Applicability to mixer-to-tower, tower-to-vat and filtrate piping sections are reported.
PERFORMANCE OF HIGHLY ALLOYED MATERIALS IN CHLORINATION BLEACHING
Catalog #14023; PDF File size: 1.2mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill and Donald E . Bardsley, reprinted from National Association of Corrosion Engineers, NACE, CORROSION '92, 1992.
Data from exposure tests of fifteen alloys in chlorination bleaching stage environments is presented. The data tends to support the wide applicability of the 6 percent molybdenum stainless steels for bleach plant service.
ALLOY 400 FOR USE IN HIGH PRESSURE FEEDWATER HEATERS
Catalog #14021; PDF File size: 1.4mb
By Dennis W. Rahoi, reprinted from Proceedings of materials workshops for the powerindustry, Nickel Development Institute, 1993.
Figures and tables help to illustrate why Alloy 400 (UNS N04400) is well suited for use in high pressure feedwater heaters. The main reason for its success is its high corrosion-resistance and the stress-relieved temper has excellent mechanical strength and corresponding allowable stress levels.
WELD FABRICATION OF A 6% MOLYBDENUM ALLOY TO AVOID CORROSION IN BLEACH PLANT SERVICE
Catalog #14020; PDF File size: 3.2mb
By Edward L. Hibner, Evan B. Hinshaw and Stephen Lamb, reprinted from Proceedings, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, 1992.
Addressed is the formation of unmixed zones that can form during the weld fabrication of N 08925, one of the 6%-molybdenum alloys. Using proper weld fabrication procedures and joint design, these mixed zones can be shown to be minimized and the weld corrosion integrity of the joint conformed using standard corrosion test procedures. No effect of heat tint or heat input on corrosion resistance was discerned and the root pass weld was not preferentially attacked, it is stated.
STRESS-CORROSION CRACKING IN NICKEL-BASE ALLOY WELDMENTS
Catalog #14017; PDF File size: 0.9MB
By Dr. David E. Jordan, International Institute of Welding, Montreal 1990.
In the spectrum of corrosion-resisting steels and alloys in which nickel is a significant constituent, nickel-base alloys are often preferred because of their resistance to stress-corrosion cracking. Apart from chloride stress-corrosion cracking, which can arise in a municipality of applications in sensitive materials such as austenitic stainless steels, there are media in more specialized applications that require careful choice of nickel alloys and the condition in which they are used, including hydrofluoric and polythionic acids, caustic soda, and molten metals. Data on unwelded materials are included in this review since their performance under stress is related to the characteristics of the welded joints.
AMBIENT-TEMPERATURE STRESS-CORROSION CRACKING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL IN SWIMMING POOLS
Catalog #14015; PDF File size: 0.5mb
By Dr. John W. Oldfield and Brian Todd, reprinted from Materials Performance, Dec 1990.
Chloride stress-corrosion cracking failures of Unified Numbering System S 30400 and S 31600 components in the atmosphere of indoor swimming pools are discussed. No failures under immersed conditions had been reported, nor in the atmosphere associated with outdoor pools. Changes in pool operations during the last few years are listed.
EVALUATION OF BLEACH PLANT PIPING MATERIALS
Catalog #14007; PDF File size: 2.2mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill and A. Garner, reprinted from Tappi Journal, Jun 1990.
Tests on fabricated pipes in the bleach plant show that further work is needed to establish an inside root pass procedure which avoids the formation of unmixed zones. Possible options include automatic gas tungsten arc welding, a greater root gap, or consumable inserts.
NICKEL STEELS IN ARCTIC SERVICE
Catalog #14004; PDF File size: 1.0MB
By C.M. Schillmoller and Bruce D. Craig, reprinted from Corrosion '87. 1987.
The beneficial effects of nickel on fracture toughness at low temperatures, mechanical properties of thick section forging and enhanced weldability of steels are discussed. Materials examined include nickel steels for structural applications -- offshore structures and storage facilities -- and those specific to oil and gas production. Also addressed: the use of highly-alloyed nickel-containing materials for enhanced corrosion resistance.
HIGH-PERFORMANCE ALLOYS: HOW THEY ARE USED OFFSHORE
Catalog #14001; PDF File size: 3.3mb
By C.M. Schillmoller, reprinted from World Oil, 1988.
Stainless steels and nickel-base alloys are increasingly utilized in the oil and gas industry for exploitation of sour crudes. Traditionally, nickel-alloys and copper-nickel alloys have served the industry well for sucker rods, instrumentation, packers, valves for gas lift, pumpshafts, seawater piping, heat exchange tubing and other critical components. New generation platforms, deep sour gas wells, carbon dioxide-enhanced oil recovery projects, and production in the Arctic, all now make use of the specialty chromium-nickel-molybdenum stainless steels and the nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys in extremely severe corrosive applications. Examples are cited and an economic analysis provided, as well as several suggestions for reducing the weight of platforms' topside construction, and guidelines provided for selection of alloys to reliably resist the aggressive corrosive environments.
LIFE-CYCLE COST BENEFITS OF CONSTRUCTING AN FGD SYSTEM WITH SELECTED STAINLESS STEELS AND NICKEL-BASE ALLOYS
Catalog #12001; PDF File size: 2.1mb
Report published by PEI Associates, Inc. for the Nickel Development Institute and the American Iron and Steel Institute, 1987.
Life-cycle cost analyses of the use of stainless steels and corrosion-resistant alloys were compared with those of nonmetallic lined-carbon steel in the construction of flue gas desulphurization system scrubbers. It was found that the life-cycle cost of the corrosion-resistant alloys are often substantially less than the costs for nonmetallic-lined steel. The benefits of using better materials of construction are improved reliability and reduced downtime; even a minor improvement in these areas can add substantially to the life-cycle cost savings. Additional savings can be achieved by selecting materials for individual components in order to match the operating environment of the component with the characteristics of the materials. Extensive field experience confirms the favourable conclusions of the cost analyses.
WALLPAPERING SHEET LINING WITH NICKEL-CHROMIUM-MOLYBDENUM ALLOYS GUIDELINES (2000)
Catalog #11020; PDF File size: 3.9mb
The practice of wallpapering or sheet lining, of carbon steel or alloy structures such as process vessels, water boxes, ducting, chimney lines, etc. is well established with extensive experiences in the chemical and process industries and more recently with flue gas desulfurization, FGD, equipment. This document is concerned with the most widely employed procedure utilizing thin, typically 1.6 millimetres, sheet which is applied to carbon steel or alloy substrates so that the sheets overlap. This document provides guidelines for the procedures employed in wallpapering carbon steel or alloy substrates with high nickel alloys. The practices also are applicable to a wide range of lower alloyed nickel-containing materials where appropriate.
STAINLESS STEEL PLUMBING
Catalog #11019; PDF File size: 3.9mb
Nickel Development Institute reference book series, 1997.
Today stainless steels are used more and more in potable water systems. The information in this booklet is tailored for designers, plumbers, end-users, maintenance engineers and others interested in providing reliable potable water systems. It covers: the nature of stainless steel; corrosion resistance; disinfection of stainless steel; tubing standards; fittings; fabrication and handling.
GUIDELINES FOR THE WELDED FABRICATION OF NICKEL ALLOYS FOR CORROSION-RESISTANT SERVICE
Catalog #11012; PDF File size: not available
By Richard E. Avery and Arthur H. Tuthill, 1994.
This publication is presented in three parts with each, in turn, focused toward the primary interests of the welder, the materials engineer, and the design engineer. Part I, FOR THE WELDER, assumes that the weld-ers and others involved in welded fabrication are familiar with the basic techniques used in carbon steel fabrication and have had limited experience with nickel alloys. Part II, FOR THE MATERIALS ENGINEER, describes the types of nickel alloys; it reviews how their metallurgical and corrosion characteristics are affected by welding and covers some of the more specialized aspects of fabrication such as heat treating. Part III, FOR THE DESIGN ENGINEER, provides a number of design examples showing how the corrosion performance of nickel alloys used in process tanks can be enhanced through thoughtful design.
GUIDELINES FOR THE WELDED FABRICATION OF NICKEL-CONTAINING STAINLESS STEELS FOR CORROSION-RESISTANT SERVICES
Catalog #11007; PDF File size: not available
By R. E. Avery and A.H. Tuthill, 1992.
Widely specified for applications where corrosion resistance is required, stainless steels are an excellent choice for chemical, dairy, food, architectural, biotechnology equipment and similar services. This publication is presented in three sections: "For the welder," deals with the differences in welding techniques for nickel-containing stainless steels, versus conventional carbon steels; "For the mater ials engineer," describes various types of stainless steels and how their metallurgical and corrosion resistant characteristics are affected by welding and heat treating; and, "For the design engineer," which demonstrates how the corrosion performance of stainless steels can be enhanced by good design.
MATERIALS FOR SALINE WATER, DESALINATION AND OILFIELD BRINE PUMPS
Catalog #11004; PDF File size: 4.2mb
Nickel Development Institute reference book series, 2nd ed., 1994.
Materials for saline water pumps include cast irons, austenitic cast irons, copper alloys, nickel-base alloys and stainless steels. In selecting corrosion-resisting materials for the several components of saline water pumps there are four principal considerations: corrosion resistance in clean seawater, and in modified saline waters that pumps commonly encounter; resistance to high velocity and turbulence; resistance to stagnant saline water encountered during standby periods; and galvanic compatibility: the pump case should galvanically protect the internals. These considerations are addressed, as is experience with available alloys.
STAINLESS STEEL FOR POTABLE WATER TREATMENT PLANTS
Catalog #10087; PDF File Size: 0.3MB
By R.E. Avery, S. Lamb, C.A. Powell and A.H. Tuthill.
Types 304L and 316L welded stainless steel piping has been successfully used in over 100 PWTPs and related potable water applications in North America. The principal reason to use stainless steel is its outstanding resistance to contaminate potable water with metal ions. Stainless steel has been used since 1965 for the large, central-control, gravity filter in water treatment plants with good performance in over 75 installations.
CORROSION- AND HEAT-RESISTANT NICKEL ALLOYS GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION AND APPLICATION
Catalog #10086; PDF File size: not available
By G. Sorell, originally published as two separate articles in Chemical Processing, Part 1 reprinted from November 1997 issue and Part 2, October 1998.
Part 1. Nickel alloys offer a combination of excellent corrosion resistance, strength, toughness, metallurgical stability, fabricability, weldability. and possess outstanding heat resistance, making them ideal choices for applications requiring chemical resistance and strength at elevated temperatures. Part 2. The ability to withstand the combined onslaught of heat and corrosion makes nickel-base alloys a good choice for aggressive high-temperature environments. Nickel alloys find extensive application for chemical process streams at elevated temperatures, commonly defined as more than about 1,000 F.
ELECTROFORMING A UNIQUE METAL FABRICATION PROCESS
Catalog #10084; PDF File Size: 0.6MB
By Ron Parkinson.
Electroforming plays an important role in our daily lives. We have contact with it many times each day and it greatly enhances our lifestyle in a variety of way. In addition, it is an extremely versatile process. It is used to produce micro components for the medical and electronics industries and huge components for the aircraft and aerospace industries. For many applications it has become indispensable and yet outside the electroforming community, little appears to be known about the process and its applications. Most metallurgists, engineers and designers are not well informed on the subject as it is rarely, if ever, included in technical courses presented at colleges or universities. Nevertheless, it is a unique metal fabrication process and nickel in the dominant metal in this industry.
ELECTROPLATING ON PLASTICS (1995)
Catalog #10078; PDF File size: 2.9mb
By Ron Parkinson and Tony Hart Electroplating and electroforming typically account for 9 to 11% of total nickel consumption. The substrates on which nickel is electroplated vary widely. Steel is the most common but others included copper, brass, stainless steel, zinc, aluminum and plastics. This publication presents a historical review of the industry and describes its present status and future expectations. It also describes the technical progress that has been responsible for the improved performance and acceptance of plated plastics. The size of the market and growth forecasts are discussed and related to total nickel consumption in the electroplating industry.
SPECIFYING STAINLESS STEEL SURFACE TREATMENTS
Catalog #10068; PDF File size: 4.0mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill and Richard E . Avery, Reprinted from Advanced Materials Processes, Vol. 142 (6), 1992.
This paper discusses various stainless steel surface treatments: passivation, pickling, electropolishing, and mechanical cleaning. Also discussed are conditions which would favor one method over another depending on the application. Often the surface treatment chosen can determine the success of the stainless steel being used.
PREVENTING STRESS-CORROSION CRACKING OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS IN CHEMICAL PLANTS
Catalog #10066; PDF File Size: 1.2MB
By Masao Nakahara, 1992.
This report discusses stress corrosion cracking, SCC, that occurs with stainless steels in chemical plants. It focuses on SCC caused by chlorides and how to prevent it.
APPLICATION OF IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC PROTECTION TO STAINLESS STEEL HOT-WATER STORAGE TANKS
Catalog #10065; PDF File size: 1.3mb
By Tsukasa Shirouzu, 1992.
Class 1 pressure vessels made of stainless steel and used as hot-water storage tanks in hotels, hospitals, factories and similar buildings are often thought to be free of corrosion because they store fresh water. However, studies of past use have shown that corrosion and stress-corrosion cracking occur in crevices and welds. Repairs are seldom satisfactory and, although the cathodic protection method is effective, it is seldom used. This report investigates the optimum condition of cathodic protection for S 30408 stainless steel tanks in the anticipated corrosion environment and studies the application of an impressed current cathodic protection. The report finds that even this type of stainless steel, which is in general use today, can, through suitable cathodic protection, be a material with superior durability. Proper cathodic protection, however, requires that attention be given to electrode positioning and tank structure for uniform distribution of potential.
CLAD ENGINEERING
Catalog #10064; PDF File size: not available
By L. M. Smith, Presented at The Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, May 4-7, 1992.
Corrosion resistant alloy clad steel has been available in various forms for more than 40 years. It is being used increasingly in the oil and gas industry. This publication describes methods of manufacturing and details of welding clad plate, pipe and fittings in the context of the specific requirements of this industrial sector. It also provides information on existing applications of clad products. The publication concludes that there are successful applications of clad steel worldwide using a wide variety of product forms and that there is considerable experience in welding clad steel. For new projects, there is a wide choice of product types to suit most sizes and components so that clad steel is an obvious engineering option for corrosive production systems.
SELECTION AND USE OF STAINLESS STEELS AND NICKEL-BEARING ALLOYS IN ORGANIC ACIDS
Catalog #10063; PDF File size: 1.1mb
By C. M. Schillmoller, 1992.
The corrosive action of organic acids is complicated because, as a rule, these acids are not handled in isolation but as process mixtures with inorganic acids, organic solvents and salts. . .as well as in combination with other organic acids. This controls the performance of the various alloys. Certain guidelines in alloy selection are presented for storage, handling and manufacture.
DEVELOPMENT OF MECHANIZED FIELD GIRTH WELDING OF HIGH-ALLOY CORROSION-RESISTANT PIPELINE MATERIALS
Catalog #10061; PDF File size: 2.4mb
Summary of group sponsored research, by R.E. Avery and C.M. Schillmoller, 1991.
For pipelines transporting petroleum products the selection of corrosion-resistant alloys is frequently justified in areas where severe corrosion is encountered. Successful welding of duplex stainless steels and alloy-clad steels requires more carethan conventional carbon steels in procedures development, operator training and quality control. The economics of using corrosion-resistant alloys can be affected by the rate of welding, inspection and pipe laydown, particularly under difficult conditions. Welding speed and efficiency can be increased using computer-controlled, automated girth welding. Many improvements have been made in weld joint preparation, as well as a better root contour.
SELECTION AND PERFORMANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS AND OTHER NICKEL-BEARING ALLOYS IN SULPHURIC ACID
Catalog #10057; PDF File size: 1.4mb
By C.M. Schillmoller, Dec 1990.
Sulphuric acid counts among the most important industrial chemicals. Although highly corrosive, concentrated sulphuric acid at ambient temperatures is customarily handled in carbon steel equipment. The aggressiveness of the acid varies with its concentration and temperature, with its velocity relative to exposed surfaces, and with the nature of possible contaminants. Examined are the behaviour of several stainless steel and nickel-bearing alloy compositions, taking account of the variables enumerated. Beginning with alloys suitable for equipment used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid and in the storage and handling of cold, concentrated commercially-pure acid, the text presents guidelines for the selection of corrosion-resisting materials, including typical applications that involve dilute, intermediate and strong acid.
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO HIGH-TEMPERATURE ALLOYS
Catalog #10056; PDF File size: 3.1mb
By Peter Elliott, reprinted from Materials Performance, Aug 1990.
High-temperature materials are used for many critical components in a number of industries including power generation, chemical processing, and gas turbine. With ever-continuing demands for increased throughput and efficiency, there has been a trend towards higher service temperatures and pressures. This has resulted in continued corrosion problems, countered by continued improvements in material compositions, coating procedures and improved fabrication, notably casting, forging and welding. All these aspects are discussed.
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO USING MARINE FASTENERS
Catalog #10045; Catalog #14045; PDF File Size: 1.5MB
By Ralph W. Ross Jr. and Arthur H. Tuthill, reprinted from Materials Performance, Apr 1990.
The marine corrosion resistance of copper-, iron-, nickel-, and aluminum-based alloy fasteners is reviewed, coated-steel systems also being included. Several new alloys are characterized as candidate materials while galvanic compatibility is identified as the most critical consideration for marine fasteners. Guidelines are presented to assist designers in the selection of appropriate marine fastener materials.
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO USING DUPLEX STAINLESS STEELS
Catalog #10044; PDF File size: 1.8mb
By Ralph M. Davison and James D. Redmond, reprinted from Materials Performance, Jan 1990.
Duplex stainless steels are defined, and advantages of second-generation nitrogen-alloyed grades are explained. Information is provided on duplex stainless steel metallurgy, pitting and crevice corrosion resistance, stress-corrosion cracking resistance, specifications, mechanical properties, fabrication procedures, and applications.
DESIGN, WATER FACTORS AFFECT SERVICE-WATER PIPING MATERIALS
Catalog #10043; PDF File size: 2.3mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill, reprinted from Power Engineering, Jul 1990.
The report identifies some of the principal factors that affect the performance of piping used for cooling water. Although several factors are interrelated, each is considered separately. This allows the engineer to use the report as an engineering checklist to ensure that none of the major factors has been overlooked. Studied are: carbon steel cement-lined piping and other coated steel piping types; nickel-containing stainless steels; copper-nickel alloys and aluminum bronze; and 6% molybdenum austenitic stainless steels and titanium. Factors that affect their behaviour are identified and one of three ratings given.
THE RIGHT METAL FOR HEAT EXCHANGER TUBES
Catalog #10040; PDF File size: 3.4mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill, reprinted from Chemical Engineering, Jan 1990.
When designing a heat exchanger, the surface area needed to carry the heat load is calculated, then the design developed to meet heat exchanger standards and codes. Next come comparative cost estimates, factoring in knowledge from experience, and selection of the best tubing metal for the service. Most unexpected failures of heat exchangers can be traced to factors not fully taken into account when selecting tube materials -- water quality, character of the operation and maintenance, and exchanger design.
STAINLESS STEEL SHEET LINING OF STEEL TANKS AND PRESSURE VESSELS
Catalog #10039; PDF File size: 2.4mb
By Richard E. Avery, Jonathan D. Harrington and William L. Mathay, 1989.
The practice of lining -- wallpapering -- carbon steel vessels with stainless steel dates back to the late 1920s and was the first used by the chemical industry, the oil industry following. Today almost every process industry uses linings where corrosion protection of carbon steel vessels is needed. But the technique has lacked the precise identification that this report gives it along with capabilities and limitations, preparingfor lining, procedures that include close examination of the various welding techniques involved, inspection and testing, and post fabrication cleanup.
SELECTION OF CORROSION-RESISTANT ALLOY TUBULARS FOR OFFSHORE APPLICATIONS
Catalog #10035; PDF File size: 1.3mb
By C.M. Schillmoller, presented at th e 2Ist Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX, U.S.A., May 1-4, 1989.
High alloy stainless steels and nickel-base alloys offer great potential in revolutionizing well completion design by increasing allowable stress levels, removing corrosion inhibitor systems, and basically making it viable to operations not possible using conventional technology. In many offshore applications, corrosion-resistant alloys can be economically justified as an alternate to carbon steel with continuous corrosion inhibition.
NICKEL-CONTAINING ALLOY PIPING FOR OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS PRODUCTION
Catalog #10033; PDF File size: 5.1mb
By G.L. Swales and B. Todd, presented at the 28th Annual Conference of Metallurgists of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Meeting of Sea and Science, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Aug 20-24, 1989.
Considered are the technical (including fabrication) and economic factors influencing the choice of nickel-containing alloy piping -- topside and subsea system applications (excluding downhole) in stainless steels (standard austenitic, duplex and high-alloy grades), nickel-base alloys and cupronickels.
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO USING 6Mo AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEEL
Catalog #10032; PDF File size: 0.9MB
By Ralph M. Davison and James D. Redmond, reprinted from Materials Performance, Dec 1988.
Gives information on the metallurgy, crevice corrosion, and chloride stress corrosion cracking resistance, design, and fabrication, as well as specifications and commercial product forms available for alloys 254 SMO, AL-6X, AL6XN, 1925 hMO (25-6MO), and 20Mo-6. Included are ASME boiler and pressure vessel code design stresses for temperatures up to 427 C; ASTM specifications for product forms; and specific welding filler metals and heat treatment requirements.
WELDING AND FABRICATION IN NICKEL ALLOYS IN FGD SYSTEMS
Catalog #10027; PDF File size: 1.4MB
By Richard E. Avery and W.H.D. Plant, presented at Air Pollution Seminar, Buffalo, NY, U.S.A., Oct 1987.
Introduced is the range of nickel alloys commonly employed in the fabrication of flue gas desulphurization equipment with the reference to the suitability of the various grades to withstand conditions experienced in service. Emphasis is placed upon the specification of grades and chemistry to meet requirements of performance in acid-chloride solutions with low pH levels. Use of nickel alloys in new construction practices, and the ease of modification of repair, are described. Alloy weldability is discussed in conjunction with application of welding and quality assurance procedures. Fabrication, using to advantage the strength and welding characteristic of the alloys, cost-effective design assembly, and utilization of clad or lined steel substrates are also covered.
FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZATION; THE EUROPEAN SCENE
Catalog #10025; PDF File size: 1.3mb
By W.H.D. Plant, presented at Air Pollution Seminar, Buffalo, NY, U.S.A., Oct 1987.
Flue gas desulphurization is considered to provide a significant contribution toward the avoidance of the problems associated with the formation of acid rain. Policies for alleviating acid-rain which have become a major public issue in Europe and Scandinavia, commanding high-level government attention-favor programs of reduction of emissions of sulphur and nitrogen oxides enforced by the imposition of emission limits for large combustion plants. It is established that, with appropriate selection and application, the nickel materials are providing cost-effective solutions to corrosion problems in FGD equipment, ensuring low maintenance costs with high availability of equipment over the extended life of the equipment-as demanded by conventional power station practice in Europe and North America.
THE USE OF NICKEL STAINLESS STEELS AND NICKEL ALLOYS IN FLUE GAS DESULPHURIZATION SYSTEMS IN THE UNITED STATES
Catalog #10024; PDF File size: 1.5mb
By William L. Mathay, presented at Air Pollution Seminar, Buffalo, NY, U.S.A., Oct 1987.
Performance of nickel-containing stainless steels and higher nickel alloys in the flue gas desulphurization systems of 39 operating power units is reviewed and discussed. Corrosion problems that have been encountered, and the solutions to them, are presented. Results indicate that the use of alloys in the more aggressive environments of various FGD systems is finding increased favor.
LIFE-CYCLE COST COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVE ALLOYS FOR FGD COMPONENTS
Catalog #10023; PDF File size: 1.1mb
By J.D. Redmond, R.M. Davison and Y.M. Shah, presented at Air Pollution Seminar, Buffalo, NY, U.S.A., Oct 1987.
Life-cycle cost analyses of the use of stainless steels and other corrosion-resistant alloys were compared with those of neoprene-lined carbon steel in the construction of FGD components. Although capital costs of the FGD components constructed of stainless steel and corrosion-resistant alloys are generally higher than those of the lined carbon steel components, the life-cycle costs are less in most cases, often substantially less. Extensive field experience confirms the favorable conclusions of the study.
THE RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEEL, PARTLY EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE, TO CORROSION BY SEAWATER
Catalog #10022; PDF File size: 4.7mb
By G.N. Flint and R.N. Cox, reprinted from Magazine of Concrete Research, Mar 1988.
Corrosion resistance of AISI 316 stainless steel- partly embedded in concrete, partly exposed to stagnant seawater, and partly exposed to seawater- has been determined over periods up to a dozen years. Exposure tests were carried out, in full immersion and tidal conditions, on specially designed concrete blocks. Mild steel specimens were also tested for comparison. Corrosion of exposed stainless steel was localized, not extensive, and affected neither the strength nor ductility of the specimens. Contrary to expectation, crevice corrosion occurred on only one of the 42 test specimens, and only after 12.5 years total immersion. It is considered that the alkalinity of the concrete was responsible for minimizing corrosion on both embedded and external areas of stainless steel.
PROCUREMENT OF QUALITY STAINLESS STEEL CASTINGS
Catalog #10021; PDF File size: 1.2mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill, reprinted from Tappi Journal, Sep 1988.
Quality stainless steel castings are readily available from foundries in the United States, Canada, Europe, Japan and elsewhere, provided the quality required is defined and specified in the procurement documents. The low-carbon grades 0.03 per cent maximum are preferred. If the low-carbon grade is not listed in the specification, a 0.03C maximum can be specified as an exception. Price is always a major consideration. The substantial reductions in maintenance, replacement, down-time, and life-cycle costs, which normally follow from specifying the most appropriate composition, micro-structure, and quality, need to be weighed against the extra cost of the higher quality obtained. Weld repair of minor defects found after solution annealing can normally be done without reducing the corrosion resistance of the alloy, provided that the alloy is one of the low-carbon grades.
ALLOYS TO RESIST CHLORINE, HYDROGEN CHLORIDE AND HYDROCHLORIC ACID
Catalog #10020; PDF File size: 0.9mb
By C.M. Schillmoller, 1988.
Gaseous chlorine at low temperatures and in the absence of moisture is not severely corrosive and is commonly handled by carbon steel. Dry hydrogen chloride behaves in a similar way. Strongly acidic hydrochloric acid, however, is harmful to steel. Each of these substances is discussed under various conditions. Materials considered include high-nickel alloys, stainless steels, high-molybdenum alloys, titanium, zirconium and tantalum.
ALLOY SELECTION FOR CAUSTIC SODA SERVICE
Catalog #10019; PDF File size: 1.5mb
By C.M. Schillmoller, 1988.
A number of construction materials may be used to produce and handle caustic solutions. Selection factors include practicality, availability, mechanical properties, corrosion resistance, risk/benefit considerations and economics. Critical factors in caustic service are listed, as are the metals and alloys most frequently considered for use in caustic soda-carbon steel, stainless steels, nickel and high-nickel alloys.
TEST TECHNIQUES FOR PITTING AND CREVICE CORROSION RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEELS AND NICKEL-BASE ALLOYS IN CHLORIDE-CONTAINING ENVIRONMENTS
Catalog #10016; PDF File size: 3.3mb
By Dr. John W. Oldfield, reprinted from International Materials Reviews, Vol. 32 (3), 1987.
Test methods currently available for determining the resistance of stainless steels and related alloys to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride environments are assessed. The present understanding of the mechanisms of pitting and crevice corrosion are examined, and the major factors affecting the process are noted. Accelerated and exposure test techniques are considered in relation to their ability to provide an accurate ranking of materials, and to relate the service conditions.
ALLOY SELECTION IN WET-PROCESS PHOSPHORIC ACID PLANTS
Catalog #10015; PDF File size: 1.3mb
By C.M. Schillmoller, reprinted from Process Industries Corrosion, The Theory and Practice, published by National Association of Corrosion Engineers, 1986.
Although the equipment and methods involved in making and utilizing phosphoric and sulphuric acid are continually undergoing refinement and improvement, not sufficient advantage seems to have been taken of new alloys that contribute substantially to reduction in capital investment, provide higher efficiency and increase operating capabilities. This paper opens a window on a group of cost-effective alloys and discusses potential and actual applications.
OPPORTUNITIES FOR NICKEL IN THE OIL AND GAS MARKET
Catalog #10013; PDF File size: 4.3mb
Four papers by C.M. Schillmoller and Brian Todd, presented at symposium, the Metallurgical Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (CIM) and NiDI, Toronto, Aug 17-20, 1986; reprinted from CIM Proceedings, Nickel Metallurgy, Series No. 25-7/6/1/3, Vol. 1 (1), 1986.
These papers cover applications of nickel-containing alloys in deep sour gas productions, enhanced oil recovery and offshore.
HIGH-PERFORMANCE AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS IN THE PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY
Catalog #10006; PDF File size: 1.2mb
By A. Garner, presented at symposium, the Metallurgical Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (CIM) and NiDI, Toronto, Aug 17-20, 1986; reprinted from CIM Proceedings, Nickel Metallurgy, Series No. 25-7/6/1/3, Vol. 1, (2), 1986.
The corrosion resistance of recently developed stainless steels is reviewed with reference to their performance in pulp mill bleach plants. Field and laboratory test data are used to compare the merits of different alloys, and the background to alloy formulation is outlined. How to avoid preferential corrosion of welds is also covered.
NICKEL IN THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES -- AN ANXIETY CLOSET OF MATERIALS SELECTION MONSTERS
Catalog #10005; PDF File size: 3.3mb
By C.P. Dillon, presented at symposium, the Metallurgical Society of the Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (CIM) and NiDI, Toronto, Aug 17-20, 1986; reprinted from CIM Proceedings, Nickel Metallurgy, Series No. 25-7/6/1/3, Vol. 1, (2), 1986.
A wide-ranging, well-illustrated dissertation on nickel-bearing and nickel-base alloys that have proved useful in many ways in the process industries where they are often used to avoid foreseeable problems, and for resolving difficulties not anticipated but arising in practice.
FABRICATION AND POST-FABRICATION CLEANUP OF STAINLESS STEELS
Catalog #10004; PDF File size: 2.8mb
By Arthur H. Tuthill, reprinted from Chemical Engineering, Sep 29, 1986.
The surface condition of stainless steels is critical where the product must not be contaminated; pharmaceutical, food and nuclear plants and where the stainless must resist an aggressive environment. Embedded iron, grease and heat tint can initiate corrosion unless properly removed or, in some cases, prevented. Provides a guide to solving the problem.
SOLVING HIGH-TEMPERATURE PROBLEMS IN OIL REFINERIES AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS
Catalog #10001; PDF File size: 2.0mb
By C.M. Schillmoller, reprinted from Chemical Engineering, Jan 6, 1986.
Because the cost of chemical process industries plant shutdowns has become so high, considerations of initial cost in alloy selection for high-temperature components are being overshadowed by life-cycle cost. Heat-resistant alloys must be selected that will not only meet the requirements of a particular application but also provide long-term performance.
STAINLESS STEEL -- SUGGESTED PRACTICES FOR ROOFING, FLASHING, COPINGS, FASCIAS, GRAVEL STOPS, DRAINAGE (1972)
Catalog #9031; PDF File size: 3.2mb
Contains tables and detail drawings describing the proper application of stainless steel to moisture protection in building construction. Dozens of drawings include typical designs for batten seam, standing seam, and flat seam roofing, industrial roofing panels, copings, fascias and gravel stops, counter or cap flashing, through-wall flashing, spandrel flashing, expansion joints, and roof drainage. A table on design factors, keyed to SMACNA Manual plate numbers, suggests the stainless steel type to use, its thickness, and detail considerations.
A DISCUSSION OF STAINLESS STEELS FOR SURFACE CONDENSERS AND FEEDWATER HEATER TUBING (1974)
Catalog #9030; PDF File size: 3.1mb
Describes the reasons behind the rapid growth of stainless steels for condenser and feedwater tubing. Discusses the environments involved -- steam-side conditions, water-side conditions, and cooling water types -- and how they influence materials choices. Provides data on physical and mechanical properties of the most frequently used stainless steel types, and frequently encountered corrosion modes are described.
THE WELDING OF FLAKE AND SPHEROIDAL GRAPHITE Ni-RESIST CASTINGS (1976)
Catalog #4421; PDF File size: 1.0mb
Although flake-graphite grades of Ni-Resist cast iron are capable of being welded satisfactorily, provided that sulphur and phosphorous content are controlled, satisfactory welds on spheroidal graphite Ni-Resist are more difficult to achieve. Covers necessary compositional and welding parameter controls.
CORROSION RESISTANCE OF THE AUSTENITIC CHROMIUM-NICKEL STAINLESS STEELS IN CHEMICAL ENVIRONMENTS (1976)
Catalog #2828; PDF File size: 1.3mb
Discusses corrosion resistance of AISI standard austenitic stainless steels to waters, salt solutions, inorganic acids, bases, organic compounds, foods, and elementary substances, with tables of corrosion rates. Includes a brief discussion of the types of corrosion of stainless steels.
THE RESISTANCE OF COPPER-NICKEL ALLOYS TO AMMONIA CORROSION IN SIMULATED STEAM CONDENSER ENVIRONMENTS (1980)
Catalog #1305; PDF File size: 0.8mb
Discusses resistance of condenser tube copper alloys to ammonia corrosion. Gives laboratory test results on commercially produced condenser tubes of a number of alloys exposed to several simulated steam condenser environments. The copper-nickel alloys are shown to be extremely resistant to general ammonia attack. (Reprinted from Proceedings of the American Power Conference.)
THE INFLUENCE OF CORROSION AND FOULING ON STEAM CONDENSER PERFORMANCE (1979)
Catalog #1304; PDF File size: 3.2mb
Discusses performance of some alloys used as condenser tubes in steam power plants. Materials investigated include copper alloys, ferritic and austenitic stainless steels and titanium. Condenser tube performance in saltwater and in brackish, fresh- and recirculated cooling-waters are given. Covers biofouling resistance of copper-nickel alloys in seawater for improving condenser tube performance. (Reprinted from Journal of Materials for Energy Systems.)
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING BEHAVIOUR OF WROUGHT Fe-Cr-Ni ALLOYS IN A MARINE ATMOSPHERE (1978)
Catalog #1279; PDF File size: 3.7mb
Reports results of five-year testing on the stress-corrosion cracking behaviour of iron-chromium-nickel alloys exposed in a marine atmosphere at Kure Beach, NC, U.S.A. Materials tested included stainless steels, nickel base alloys and several Fe-Cr-Ni alloys in different metallurgical conditions. Evaluation program was conducted on U-bend, three-point-loaded bent beam and cantilever beam specimens at various levels of applied stress. (Reprinted from Materials Performance.)
CA-706 COPPER-NICKEL ALLOY HULLS: THE COPPER MARINER'S EXPERIENCE AND ECONOMICS (1977)
Catalog #1265; PDF File size: not available
Actual four-year operating experience with the CA-706 copper-nickel alloy hull of a shrimp trawler has shown it to be a good business investment. Copper-nickel alloy was selected because of its corrosion resistance and biofouling resistance when operating in seawater. Details of the design and construction of the Copper Mariner are given along with an economic analysis showing fuel savings, maintenance savings and increased availability for fishing derived from using this material. (Reprint of SNAME publication.)
RESISTANCE OF STAINLESS STEEL TO CORROSION IN NATURALLY OCCURRING WATERS (1980)
Catalog #1262; PDF File size: 2.5mb
Reviews behaviour of conventional stainless steels in freshwater, chloride-containing waters and seawater. Included are the austenitic Types
304 and 316 stainless steels, Type 410 and the ferritic 18Cr/2Mo/Ti
stainless steels. Factors of importance to consider to minimize localized corrosion in chloride-containing waters are: avoidance of crevices, cathodic protection, high velocity, intermittent exposure and low oxygen level. Also considers welded joints, soft soldered joints and brazed joints (Reprinted from Transactions of the 2nd Spanish Corrosion Congress.)
THE SUCCESSFUL USE OF AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS IN SEAWATER (1977)
Catalog #1259; PDF File size: 3.6mb
Austenitic stainless steels are providing excellent troublefree service in seawater for pumps, propellers, valves, and other items of marine equipment. A failure occurs occasionally as the result of deep localized pitting in a crevice. Data are given showing that austenitic, ferritic and martensitic stainless steel suffer pitting in crevices and under deposits in quiescent seawater. Austenitic stainless steels remain free from attack in high velocity seawater. Low purity ferritic and the martensitic stainless steels frequently pit in high velocity seawater. Crevice corrosion can be effectively controlled with cathodic protection from iron, zinc, aluminum or magnesium galvanic anodes or impressed current cathodic protection by polarization to -0.6 volts versus Calomel. Austenitic stainless steel, in many situations, performs well because it is a component of a multialloy assembly utilizing iron or steel. Gives examples from field experience.
CORROSION FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF NICKEL- CONTAINING MATERIALS IN SEAWATER (1977)
Catalog #1258; PDF File size: 0.8mb
The corrosion-fatigue behaviour of a number of nickel-containing materials in seawater has been evaluated at the LaQue Centre for Corrosion Technology, W rightsville Beach, NC, U.S.A., using a technique involving smooth (unnotched) cantilever beam specimens rotating at 1450 rpm for a maximum duration of 100 megacycles (about 48 days). Evaluation has included nickel- and copper-base alloys, and some steels. Generally, test data suggest that a high ultimate tensile strength, high inherent pitting resistance, and a small grain size, are among the factors that give a high resistance to corrosion fatigue in seawater. Other main findings are that cathodic protection and flame-sprayed mild steel coatings improve the corrosion fatigue resistance of 18% Ni maraging steel, and that higher nickel content improves the corrosion fatigue resistance of cast bronze.
CORROSION RESISTANCE OF THE AUSTENITIC CHROMIUM-NICKEL STAINLESS STEELS IN ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENTS (1983)
Catalog #318; PDF File size: 1.3mb
A discussion of the corrosion resistance of the AISI standard austenitic stainless steels in rural, industrial, and marine atmospheres, with tabular data. Included are brief discussions of architectural, structural, transportation and hardware applications and the use of stainless steel insect screens.
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